Our Elements Cd Cadmium
Menu

What we use cadmium for

Where does it go, and why this element?

USGS ranks nickel-cadmium batteries first, at 85% in its last breakdown. On an industry chart, jewelry is first, at 57%. Jewelry made in India is poorly measured. Coatings, pigments, alloys and solar panels take smaller amounts.

Last updated 5 October 2026.

Where it goes

Where it goes (World)
Nickel-cadmium batteries 85%
Pigments 10%
Coatings 4%
Other (alloys, solar cells, stabilizers) 1%
2014. The newest full world breakdown from a government source; the year is that of the yearbook. We keep it because batteries are also first in the other rankings of uses: USGS in every edition from 2018 to 2026, and the International Cadmium Association's own 2021 report, which estimated batteries at 11,000 to 14,000 t of about 24,450 t. On the Association's web chart for 2019, jewelry is first (57%) and batteries are 23%; see the uses chapter1
Where it went over time, share of each use (World)
  • Alloys and other
  • Stabilizers
  • Coatings and plating
  • Pigments
  • Batteries
0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 1998 2000 2002 2004 Batteries Pigments
Shares of world cadmium consumption by end use, as estimated by the International Cadmium Association (an industry body). 1997 to 2003 from one table in its 2004 review; 2004 from the same Association, as reported by USGS. USGS does not say these shares are for the world; the Association's table of the same estimates is for the world. For 2003 the two sources agree within one point. The Association itself says consumption 'is very difficult to establish accurately'23
Show the numbers
Year BatteriesPigmentsCoatings and platingStabilizersAlloys and other
1997 70%13%8%7%2%
1998 72%13%8%6%1%
1999 73%13%8%5%1%
2000 75%12%8%4%1%
2001 77%12%8%2%0.5%
2002 78%12%8%1.5%0.5%
2003 80%11%7%1.5%0.5%
2004 81%10%7%1.5%0.5%

The newest full world breakdown from USGS is in its 2014 yearbook. In it, USGS gives nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries about 85%, pigments 10%, coatings 4%, and alloys, solar cells and stabilizers 1%1. In later editions USGS gives no shares, but it says that NiCd batteries still took most of the cadmium in 20194. USGS adds that semiconductor uses are growing: cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels, cadmium zinc telluride detectors and cadmium selenide for optical electronics5.

The International Cadmium Association, the industry body, estimated that batteries took 70% of world use in 1997 and 80% in 2003. In the same years, its estimate for stabilizers in plastics fell from 7% to 1.5%2. USGS reports the Association’s estimate for batteries in 2004 as 81%3.

The Association gives a different split in a chart of world use in 2019, which totals 25,600 tonnes6. The British Geological Survey copies the chart in a 2024 assessment. The shares are jewelry 57%, NiCd batteries 23%, PVC stabilizers 8%, plating 4%, alloys 4%, pigments 3% and other 1%7.

In the EU, jewelry and PVC uses are not allowed. In a 2023 study, the EU-funded SCRREEN2 project put batteries at 91% of EU use8. The two world counts are different. We compare them in the last section of this page.

Why this element

NiCd batteries are rugged and long-lived. They can last up to 25 years or 2,500 charge cycles9 and work from about −50 to +50 °C9. They do not burn4. Most commercial and corporate aircraft use them to start engines and for emergency power4. Railways, telecom backup and offshore platforms use them too4.

As a coating, cadmium resists salt spray and alkalis9. Bolts plated with it tighten predictably, because of its low friction9. It is still used on fasteners in aircraft landing gear4.

Cadmium sulfide is golden yellow. When zinc, mercury or selenium replace part of it, the colors range from primrose yellow to maroon9. The pigments survive the 300 to 400 °C needed to mold some plastics9.

Cadmium telluride makes thin-film solar cells10. A silver-indium-cadmium alloy is a common control rod material in nuclear reactors9. Cadmium copper is used for railway overhead wires9.

What could replace it

Lithium-ion and other batteries can replace NiCd batteries in many uses5. NiCd batteries store less energy for their weight. Lithium-ion has already replaced them in most consumer electronics, including power tools4. NiCd batteries keep their place in industrial uses with harsh conditions and wide temperature ranges4.

Zinc-nickel coatings can replace cadmium plating in many uses, but not where the surface properties are critical, as on aircraft fasteners. Cerium sulfide replaces cadmium pigments, mostly in plastics. Barium stabilizers replace barium-cadmium stabilizers in flexible PVC5.

CdTe solar panels compete with crystalline silicon panels5. USGS lists a substitute for each main use. Cadmium stays where the substitute lacks something the buyer needs. Examples are long service life in harsh conditions, and a coating with low friction that resists corrosion on aircraft parts4.

Where demand is going

We found no published world forecast of cadmium demand. USGS expects NiCd batteries to stay in industrial uses. It also expects cadmium to be needed for coatings, thin-film solar cells and reactor control rods4.

Demand is moving between countries. China’s net imports of unwrought cadmium fell from 9,140 tonnes in 2016 to 2,200 tonnes in 20194. India’s net imports rose for eight years in a row, from 376 tonnes in 2011 to 7,720 tonnes in 20194. In 2019 India was building two electrified freight lines, with overhead wire specified in copper-cadmium alloy. NiCd battery making in India grew, in part because of the rail work4. The International Cadmium Association expected India’s mandatory hallmarking of gold jewelry to stop the illegal use of cadmium by small jewellers. It said Indian imports could then fall a lot11. We found no information on whether this has happened.

Solar is the growing use. The leading US maker of CdTe panels opened a fifth factory in mid-2025. USGS expected US capacity to reach about 14 gigawatts a year once it was fully running in 20265.

Why the counts differ

In its own written report, the Association lists 2019 uses in order of size, with NiCd batteries first11. It put batteries at 11,000 to 14,000 tonnes a year. It had no data on jewelry and counted it as what was left over11. Its world total for 2018 was about 24,450 tonnes11. On these figures batteries took about 45% to 57%. The chart’s 57% for jewelry equals the top battery estimate. We cannot tell whether two labels on the chart are swapped, and the Association has not said.

The jewelry use is real, but hard to count. The Association says India used 6,618 tonnes in 2018, mostly in jewelry11. Gold solder holds 8% cadmium11, and cheap fashion jewelry more than 90%11. USGS reported that, according to news sources, Indian demand for jewelry alloys caused the 2017 price rise12. USGS has given both views. In its 2016 yearbook, USGS said India was thought to use cadmium mostly in jewelry alloys13. In its 2019 yearbook, USGS quotes the Indian Bureau of Mines and gives plating as India’s leading use4. No independent study of world end uses after 2014 was found.

Sources

  1. 1

    A.C. Tolcin, U.S. Geological Survey, 2016. Cadmium, in 2014 Minerals Yearbook (advance release) , p. 15.1, Consumption.

    World end-use shares: NiCd batteries about 85%, pigments 10%, coatings 4%, other 1%.

    • about 85% of the cadmium consumed globally was used in NiCd batteries, 10% in pigments, 4% in coatings, and 1% in various uses including alloys, solar cells, and stabilizers
  2. 2

    Hugh Morrow, International Cadmium Association (industry association); Mining Communications Ltd (copy hosted by the Association), 2004. Cadmium, in Mining Annual Review 2004 , Table 6, p. 10: Worldwide cadmium consumption patterns by market segment.

    The Association's yearly estimates of world cadmium use by end use, 1997 to 2003, in percent.

    • Worldwide cadmium consumption patterns by market segment (% of total consumption) 1997 ... Batteries 70 ... Pigments 13 ... Coatings 8 ... Stabilisers 7 ... Alloys and 2
    • Batteries 70 72 ... Pigments 13 13 ... Coatings 8 8 ... Stabilisers 7 6 ... Alloys and 2 1
    • Batteries 70 72 73 ... Pigments 13 13 13 ... Coatings 8 8 8 ... Stabilisers 7 6 5 ... Alloys and 2 1 1
    • Batteries 70 72 73 75 ... Pigments 13 13 13 12 ... Coatings 8 8 8 8 ... Stabilisers 7 6 5 4 ... Alloys and 2 1 1 1
    • Batteries 70 72 73 75 77 ... Pigments 13 13 13 12 12 ... Coatings 8 8 8 8 8 ... Stabilisers 7 6 5 4 2 ... Alloys and 2 1 1 1 <1
    • Batteries 70 72 73 75 77 78 ... Pigments 13 13 13 12 12 12 ... Coatings 8 8 8 8 8 8 ... Stabilisers 7 6 5 4 2 1.5 ... Alloys and 2 1 1 1 <1 0.5
    • Batteries 70 72 73 75 77 78 80 Pigments 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 Coatings 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 Stabilisers 7 6 5 4 2 1.5 1.5 Alloys and 2 1 1 1 <1 0.5 0.5
    • Batteries 70 72 73 75 77 78 80 … Stabilisers 7 6 5 4 2 1.5 1.5
  3. 3

    E.P. Klimasauskas, P.H. Kuck and P.A. Plunkert, U.S. Geological Survey, 2007. Cadmium, in 2004 Minerals Yearbook , p. 15.1.

    World end-use shares for 2004, as estimated by the International Cadmium Association. The year is the date of the PDF file; the chapter gives no publication date.

    • estimates of cadmium consumption for various end uses in 2004: batteries, 81%; pigments, 10%; coatings and plating, 7%; stabilizers for plastics and similar synthetic products, 1.5%; and nonferrous alloys and other uses, 0.5%
    • end uses in 2004: batteries, 81%
  4. 4

    R.M. Callaghan, U.S. Geological Survey, 2024. Cadmium, in 2019 Minerals Yearbook (advance release) , pp. 15.1-15.4.

    Uses, trade, consumers, China's pollution campaign and the outlook.

    • NiCd battery production continued to account for most of the global cadmium consumption
    • are nonflammable, and can operate in a wide temperature range reliably
    • Most commercial and corporate aircraft use NiCd batteries. In addition to engine startup, the batteries are needed for functions such as emergency power
    • NiCd batteries are also used in railway applications … For telecommunications backup in hotter regions … offshore oil and gas platforms
    • the metal commonly was used to plate fasteners in aircraft landing gear and parachutes
    • Lithium-ion batteries have significantly replaced NiCd batteries in most consumer electronics, particularly power tools
    • NiCd batteries have a lower energy density compared with newer alternatives
    • superior reliability and stability in a wide range of operating temperatures and harsh environments
    • cadmium coatings remained indispensable owing to a combination of properties not available from other coatings, including superior corrosion resistance and a low coefficient of friction
    • cadmium will continue to be needed in its other end uses as well, such as for coatings to prevent corrosion in critical applications, in thin-film solar cells, and in control rods in nuclear reactors
    • net imports of unwrought cadmium and powders into China decreased from 9,140 t in 2016 to 2,200 t in 2019
    • increased for the eighth consecutive year, from 376 t in 2011 … to 7,720 t in 2019
    • Catenary wire used for this purpose was specified to be made of copper-cadmium alloy wire
    • NiCd battery manufacturing was increasing in India, in part, because of the new rail initiative
    • In India, the leading end use of cadmium was cadmium plating for corrosion protection
  5. 5

    U.S. Geological Survey, 2026. Cadmium, in Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 , pp. 52-53.

    World refinery production, price, US trade, substitutes and events for 2025.

    • cadmium has increasingly been used in semiconductors such as in cadmium-telluride (CdTe) thin-film solar panels, in cadmium-zinc-telluride (CdZnTe) substrates for radiation detectors and imaging applications, and cadmium selenide (CdSe) optoelectronic applications
    • batteries with other chemistries, particularly lithium-ion, can replace NiCd batteries in many applications
    • except where the surface characteristics of a coating are critical (for example, fasteners for aircraft), coatings such as zinc-nickel can be substituted … cerium sulfide is used as a replacement for cadmium pigments, mostly in plastics. Barium stabilizers can replace barium-cadmium stabilizers
    • CdTe solar panels compete with crystalline silicon solar panels
    • began production in mid-2025 at a fifth facility, which was expected to increase domestic manufacturing capacity to about 14 gigawatts per year once fully ramped up in 2026
  6. 6

    International Cadmium Association (industry association), 2026. Cadmium.org: International Cadmium Association , Home page charts: World cadmium applications (2019); EU28 cadmium applications (2019).

    Industry association. World use 2019, 25,600 t: jewelry 57%, NiCd batteries 23%, PVC stabilizers 8%, plating 4%, alloys 4%, pigments 3%, other 1%. EU28 2019, 2,500 t: NiCd batteries 80%. The chart values are in the page source, and a script draws the chart.

    • WORLD CADMIUM APPLICATIONS (2019) 25600t
  7. 7

    G. Mudd and others, British Geological Survey, 2024. UK 2024 Criticality Assessment (Open Report OR/24/047) , Results tables; appendix tables on end uses and by-product status.

    Cadmium rated non-critical; by-product status; end-use table citing the International Cadmium Association.

    • Jewellery (this application is not authorised in the EU) 57 0 NiCd batteries 23 75 (International Cadmium Association, 2024b) PVC stabilizers (this application is not authorised in the EU) 8 0 Cd plating 4 0 Technical alloys 4 0 Pigment manufacturing 3 0 Other (presumably including photovoltaics) 1
  8. 8

    SCRREEN2 (EU Horizon 2020 project), 2023. SCRREEN2 factsheets updates based on the EU factsheets 2020: Cadmium , EU uses and end-uses; substitution table.

    EU uses of cadmium: batteries 91%, alloys 5%, coatings 3%, solar 1%. The text gives no year for the shares.

    • In the EU, batteries account for most of the cadmium consumption … Batteries 91%
  9. 9

    W.C. Butterman and J. Plachy, U.S. Geological Survey, 2002. Mineral Commodity Profiles: Cadmium (Open-File Report 02-238) , pp. 3-24.

    History, minerals, refining process, uses by period, environment and price history to 2000.

    • they are mechanically and electrically rugged and are long-lived (up to 25 years, or 2,500 charge/discharge cycles)
    • wide operating range; can be as large as from about -50 to +50
    • It is very effective against alkalis, detergents, and salt spray
    • a cadmium coating or plate has the advantage of predictable torque, which is a consequence of its low coefficient of friction
    • cadmium sulfide (CdS), which is golden yellow, is the base cadmium pigment
    • through light red, medium red, and dark red to maroon (65 percent CdSe)
    • their ability to withstand the high processing temperatures (300-400
    • an 80 percent silver-15 percent indium-5 percent cadmium alloy is one of the two most commonly used control rod materials
    • trolley power wires for electrified railroads
  10. 10

    A.C. Tolcin, U.S. Geological Survey, 2010. Cadmium, in 2007 Minerals Yearbook , pp. 15.1-15.3.

    The 2007 price rise, producers by country, Belgium's compound makers and the EU battery directive.

    • Cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film solar cells are an alternative to traditional crystalline silicon solar cells
  11. 11

    International Cadmium Association (industry association), 2021. Worldwide Production, Trade and Consumption of Cadmium , pp. 2-3, 6-9.

    World production and consumption about 24,450 t in 2018; India's use mostly in jewelry; NiCd batteries listed first among 2019 uses, estimated at 11,000 to 14,000 t; alloys, including jewelry, estimated as the remainder.

    • The mandatory hallmarking is expected to completely bring down the illegal usage of cadmium by small jewellery artisans
    • If this would materialize, Indian cadmium imports can drop significantly
    • In 2019 the worldwide cadmium consumption was split over a series of applications, listed here below in order of market size: … NiCd batteries in aviation
    • no data is available on the unregulated and illegal use of cadmium in the fashion jewellery industry, mainly in India. It was estimated as what was left over … For NiCd batteries, the top end of different estimates was taken (11 000 - 14 000 t/y)
    • world 23 965 24 454
    • In 2018, India consumed 6 618 t cadmium, mostly in jewellery and fashion
    • a gold-8%Cd alloy (KDM gold)
    • alloys containing more than 90% cadmium are used
  12. 12

    U.S. Geological Survey, 2018. Cadmium, in Mineral Commodity Summaries 2018 , Events, Trends, and Issues.

    Global consumption data not available; NiCd batteries thought to be the majority; 2017 price rise attributed by news sources to Indian demand, mostly for jewelry alloys.

    • news sources attributed the overall increase in price in the first 10 months of 2017 to continued strong demand for cadmium in India, mostly for jewelry alloys
  13. 13

    U.S. Geological Survey, 2018. Cadmium, in 2016 Minerals Yearbook (advance release) , Consumption, Pigments.

    Sweden's proposal to ban cadmium pigments in artists' paints and its withdrawal in 2015.

    • In India, cadmium was thought to be consumed mostly for the production of precious-metal alloys for jewelry