The Periodic Table of Scarcity and Abundance Cd Cadmium
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Cadmium: Who controls it

Who controls the supply, and who depends on it?

China refines about 41% of the world's cadmium and South Korea about 19%. Cadmium is on none of the main critical-mineral lists. Governments mostly treat it as a poison to restrict. Since 2025 China has controlled exports of cadmium tellurides.

Last updated 3 October 2026.

How concentrated supply is

Refining and smelting, 2025

China 41%. Top three countries 66%. HHI at least 2,200, highly concentrated.1

HHI is the Herfindahl-Hirschman index: the sum of each country's squared percentage share. We compute it from the country table. We leave out the rest of the world, so the true value can be a little higher. In the 2023 US merger guidelines, above 1,800 is "highly concentrated". In older guidelines, 1,000 to 1,800 was "moderately concentrated". Those guidelines are for companies, not countries.2 More on the method.

Refining is the stage that counts, because USGS reports no mine production. In 2025 China refined about 41% of world cadmium (9,500 of 23,000 tonnes) and South Korea about 19% (4,300 tonnes). Canada and Japan were tied third with about 6% each1. The top three countries made about 66% (15,100 of 23,000 tonnes).

The Herfindahl-Hirschman index (the sum of squared percentage shares) is about 2,200 when computed from the 2025 USGS country figures1. This is our calculation from estimated data, so it is rough.

Zinc ore comes from more places than refined cadmium. Peru, Mexico and India held large cadmium reserves in 20133. Around 2000, Australia and Canada recovered much less cadmium than their zinc concentrates held4. The main flows of concentrate ran to eastern Asia and Europe4.

We found no published company shares. The producers are the large zinc refiners, such as Korea Zinc and Nyrstar, and Chinese smelters such as Huludao, Shaoguan and Zhuzhou56.

Who depends on it

A year’s world output was worth roughly $90 million in 2025, by our estimate from USGS figures1.

Users depend on it more than producers do. India’s net imports were 7,720 tonnes in 20196. India’s own output was only 47 tonnes in 2017-2018 and fell to zero in 2019. The industry association gives these figures from the Indian Bureau of Mines7. Its leading use was plating; it also used cadmium in alloys, NiCd batteries and reactor control rods6. In 2007 Belgium made cadmium compounds from metal for battery makers abroad5.

The United States produces some cadmium. In 2025 its net imports were less than a quarter of its apparent consumption1. Cadmium zinc telluride is used in radiation detectors for national security and nuclear medicine6. For fiscal year 2025, the US government listed 2,800 square centimeters of these crystals as potential purchases for its stockpile1. The aerospace industry and armed forces use cadmium coatings where a substitute might compromise safety6.

How governments treat it

List On the list
EU critical raw materials (2023) No Not on the list of 34 critical raw materials. 8
EU strategic raw materials (2023) No 8
US critical minerals (USGS, 2025) No Zinc (its host) and tellurium (its partner in CdTe solar cells) are on the list; cadmium is not. 9
US critical materials for energy (DOE, 2023) No 10
UK critical minerals (2024) No Assessed and rated non-critical (score 3.2). 11

We checked five critical lists, and cadmium is on none of them. It is not on the EU critical raw materials list of 20238. It is not on the 2025 US list of 60 critical minerals, which includes zinc and tellurium9. The US Department of Energy adds energy materials to that list in its own list, and cadmium is not among them10. The British Geological Survey rated it non-critical in 202411.

Most government action is about toxicity. The EU battery directive of 2006 banned portable batteries with more than 0.002% cadmium, with a few exemptions5. A 2013 amendment ended the exemption for cordless power tools after 31 December 201612. A Batteries Regulation entered into force on 17 August 202313. In 2016 China began a campaign against heavy-metal pollution. By November 2019 about 1,300 firms had reportedly closed, 700 of them cadmium operations6. China also limits imported zinc concentrates to 0.3% cadmium7.

Trade controls and stockpiles

On 4 February 2025 China announced export licences for three cadmium tellurides14. They fall under its controls on tellurium and four other metals14. The stated aims were national security and non-proliferation14. Cadmium metal is not on the list. In 2018 and 2019 the United States added tariffs on Chinese cadmium products. For the details, see the society chapter6.

The United States stockpiled cadmium from 1948 and held more than 7,800 tonnes by 19624. It sold surplus metal from 1963 to 1976 and from 1993 to 2000. At the end of fiscal year 2000 it still held 799 tonnes, all authorized for sale4.

Sources

  1. 1

    U.S. Geological Survey, 2026. Cadmium, in Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 , pp. 52-53.

    World refinery production, price, US trade, substitutes and events for 2025.

    • Canadae Chinae Germanye Japane ... 1,300 1,300 8,900 9,500 130 220 1,580 1,300 ... 4,300 4,300
    • Canadae Chinae Germanye Japane … 1,300 1,300 8,900 9,500 130 220 1,580 1,300 … 4,300 4,300
    • World total (rounded) … 22,800 23,000
    • W 3.90 <25
    • FY 2025 potential acquisitions included 2,800 square centimeters of CdZnTe substrates
  2. 2

    U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission, 2023. Merger Guidelines , Guideline 1, p. 5 and footnote 15.

    Defines the Herfindahl-Hirschman index; above 1,800 is highly concentrated. Footnote 15 gives the older band of 1,000 to 1,800 as moderately concentrated.

  3. 3

    U.S. Geological Survey, 2014. Cadmium, in Mineral Commodity Summaries 2014 , World Refinery Production and Reserves table.

    Last USGS estimate of cadmium reserves, by country, for 2013.

    • Reserves 32,000 NA NA 23,000 92,000 35,000 … 30,000 … 47,000 … 55,000
  4. 4

    W.C. Butterman and J. Plachy, U.S. Geological Survey, 2002. Mineral Commodity Profiles: Cadmium (Open-File Report 02-238) , pp. 3-24.

    History, minerals, refining process, uses by period, environment and price history to 2000.

    • some countries, such as Australia and Canada, extract much less cadmium than is contained in the zinc concentrates they produce
    • the predominant flows of cadmium-containing zinc concentrates are from Australia and North America towards eastern Asia and Europe
    • The U.S. Government began stockpiling cadmium in 1948 to insure its availability for critical uses in military hardware
    • By yearend 1962, more than 7,800 t of cadmium metal had been stockpiled
    • Surplus cadmium was sold from 1963 to 1976; sales were begun again in 1993 and continued through 2000. As of the end of fiscal year 2000, the National Defense Stockpile contained 799 t of cadmium metal
  5. 5

    A.C. Tolcin, U.S. Geological Survey, 2010. Cadmium, in 2007 Minerals Yearbook , pp. 15.1-15.3.

    The 2007 price rise, producers by country, Belgium's compound makers and the EU battery directive.

    • Leading producers of refined cadmium in China were Huludao Zinc Smelter (Liaoning Province), Shaoguan Smelter (Guangdong Province), and Zhuzhou Lead-Zinc Smelter (Hunan Province)
    • a large portion of the cadmium metal consumed in Belgium was for the production of cadmium compounds
    • all NiCd batteries containing more than 0.002% cadmium by weight were to be banned from the market. However, NiCd batteries used in certain cordless power tools, emergency systems, and medical equipment were exempt
  6. 6

    R.M. Callaghan, U.S. Geological Survey, 2024. Cadmium, in 2019 Minerals Yearbook (advance release) , pp. 15.1-15.4.

    Uses, trade, consumers, China's pollution campaign and the outlook.

    • Nyrstar N.V.’s (Belgium) electrolytic zinc refinery in Clarksville, TN, produced zinc metal and several byproducts, including cadmium metal
    • to 7,720 t in 2019
    • In India, the leading end use of cadmium was cadmium plating for corrosion protection, but it also was used in a variety of applications such as in alloys for bearings and electrical transmission wire, NiCd batteries, nuclear reactor control rods, and pigments
    • is used in national security, nuclear medicine, nuclear safeguard, and x-ray imaging applications
    • were used by the aerospace industry and military for critical applications where coating substitution might compromise operational safety
    • about 1,300 firms that produced or processed heavy metals were reportedly closed as of November 2019, including 700 operations that processed cadmium
    • The increased tariff list included cadmium oxide, cadmium sulfide, unwrought cadmium and powder
  7. 7

    International Cadmium Association (industry association), 2021. Worldwide Production, Trade and Consumption of Cadmium , pp. 2-3, 6-9.

    World production and consumption about 24,450 t in 2018; India's use mostly in jewellery; NiCd batteries listed first among 2019 uses, estimated at 11,000 to 14,000 t; alloys, including jewellery, estimated as the remainder.

    • According to the Indian Bureau of Mines, total domestic production in 2017-2018 was only 47 t and even dropping to zero in 2019
    • China applies a 0.3% Cd threshold on imported zinc concentrate
  8. 8

    European Commission, 2026. Critical raw materials , Fifth list 2023 of critical raw materials for the EU.

    The 34 critical and the strategic raw materials; cadmium is not listed.

    • bismuth hafnium niobium titanium metal boron/borate helium platinum group metals tungsten cobalt
    • copper and nickel do not meet the CRM thresholds but are included on the CRM list as strategic raw materials
  9. 9

    U.S. Geological Survey (Federal Register vol. 90, no. 214), 2025. Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals , p. 50494, Summary.

    The 60 minerals on the 2025 list; cadmium is not one of them.

    • includes the following 60 minerals: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, barite, beryllium, bismuth, boron, cerium
  10. 10

    U.S. Department of Energy, 2026. What Are Critical Materials and Critical Minerals? , DOE Critical Materials List.

    The DOE critical materials list; cadmium is not on it.

    • as well as those critical minerals on the 2025 final list published by the Secretary of the Interior
  11. 11

    G. Mudd and others, British Geological Survey, 2024. UK 2024 Criticality Assessment (Open Report OR/24/047) , Results tables; appendix tables on end uses and by-product status.

    Cadmium rated non-critical; by-product status; end-use table citing the International Cadmium Association.

    • cadmium (Cd) 2.8 3.7 3.2 non-critical
  12. 12

    European Parliament and Council of the EU, 2013. Directive 2013/56/EU amending Directive 2006/66/EC (recitals) , Recitals 3 and 4.

    Ends the power-tool exemption after 31 December 2016.

    • until 31 December 2016
  13. 13

    European Commission, 2026. Batteries .

    Batteries Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 in force from 17 August 2023; it replaces the 2006 directive.

    • On 17 August 2023, the new Batteries Regulation entered into force
  14. 14

    International Energy Agency, Policies database, 2025. Decision to implement export controls on tungsten, tellurium, bismuth, molybdenum and indium related items .

    China's Decision No. 10 of 2025 (4 February 2025): licences needed to export tellurium, cadmium telluride, cadmium zinc telluride and cadmium mercury telluride.

    • On February 4, 2025, the Ministry of Commerce and the General Administration of Customs of China announced the implementation of export controls
    • tellurium compounds (cadmium telluride, cadmium zinc telluride, cadmium mercury telluride)
    • The aim is to safeguard national security and fulfill international non-proliferation obligations